The most basic organic compound is the alkane, which is comprised solely of carbon atoms that have single bonds to hydrogen atoms. Because it is completely surrounded by hydrogens, it can be said that the alkane is hydrated. The alkene, the dehydrated brother of the alkane, has the same basic structure except that double bonds may exist as well.  Below are some examples of alkanes and alkenes.

CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₃                                 CH₃ – CH = CH – CH₂ – CH₃

Pentane, C₅H₁₂                                                          2-Pentene, C₅H₁₀

The significance of the double bond in alkenes is the fact that an excess of electrons allows for increased bonding potential. Conversely, this means that the alkanes are fairly nonreactive, owing to the fact that no double bonds exist. Knowing this, it seems reasonable to deduce that Shakespeare may have treated Jaques the same way that modern chemists treat alkanes. The most important fact about analyzing chemicals from a literary standpoint is that both reactive and nonreactive compounds exist. Shakespeare realized that the small imitates the large and was thusly able to construct highly complex plot structures in many plays. (McMurry, 2003)

Reactivity and the double bond play a significant role in many of Shakespeare’s works, most notably As You Like It. Many of the characters are dealt the role of the catalytic electron attached to the double-bonded carbon pair. Touchstone, for instance, is often provocative in his claims and is commonly seen as a social “whetstone.” Through exemplary digressive stories and capriciously interesting claims, Shakespeare uses Touchstone to communicate certain isomorphisms between the microscopic and the macroscopic world. By way of context and social interactions, it becomes clear that he is also a symbol of the human condition, a vividly characterized avatar of Shakespeare’s metaphysical meanderings, and a manifestation of the curious wandering that has driven mankind to where it is today.

In addition to the physical representation of reactivity, there is a more abstract side to the coin. In As You Like It, the idea of desire drives the plot from beginning to end. The reactivity that results from desire causes Duke Frederick to usurp the throne from his brother, Duke Senior, and it causes Oliver to hold the inheritance over the head of Orlando. While all these types of desire stem from the seed of greed, there is also the desire that stems from the seed of love and lust. For example, the reactivity of lusty desire leads Rosalind to develop an impulsive crush on Orlando, Silvius to fall victim to the harsh Phebe, and Touchstone to grow to love Audrey.

In more thematic terms, hydration and dehydration often play large roles in the development of characters. Isomorphically, or in terms of information-preserving comparisons, this means that characters commonly undergo changes between states of reactivity and dormancy. Although Oliver is a highly reactive and volatile character in the beginning of As You Like It, he changes into a more dormant character that wants to settle down by the end of the play. This change is caused by a reaction that he undergoes with another reactive character, Orlando, who also gives up some of his catalytic potential by eliminating the divisive tension between himself and his brother. By this comparison, both characters are portrayed as metaphysical alkenes that react and yield products which are far different from their origins.

The aromatic ring is another atomic formation which has a particular metaphysical representation in Elizabethan literature. An example of a basic aromatic ring is benzene, a stack-based network that exists in the graphite of the pencil used to sign the pledge on this paper. The metaphysical representation of benzene and other aromatic compounds might be discovered upon considering both the structure and functionality of the unit. Below are diagrams of benzene.

                                                                     C – C

                                                                 //             

                                                            C                     C

                                                                               /

                                                                   C = C

            Benzene, C₆H₆                                 C = C

                                                               /                

                                                            C                     C

                                                                               //

                                                                   C – C

In considering the significance of the structure of benzene and its relation to Shakespeare’s works, it becomes clear that the circular nature of aromatic compounds is similar to the connected nature of all social interactions. The reactions that take place between Duke Frederick and Duke Senior become increasingly connected to the reactions that take place between Rosalind and Duke Frederick, and as well as those between Rosalind and Celia. Different functional groups, such as alcohols, ketones, or carboxylic acids, may attach to different bonding sites on the benzene ring to change the basic nature of the molecule. In this same manner, a variety of social interactions may take place Shakespeare’s works, and for that matter in reality, and their results may change the entire picture in terms of the friends and family of the reactants. (McMurry, 2003)

In addition to considering the significance of metaphysical isomorphisms, it is important to take into account the contemporary scientific beliefs, because they may have shaped Shakespeare’s works just as much as the aforementioned alchemical connections. Shakespeare lived at the end of the 16^th century, which means that the revolution in astronomy may have greatly affected his work. The heliocentric beliefs of Copernicus may have inspired Shakespeare in the same way that quantum mechanics inspires the budding minds of pseudo-scientists today. Evidence of this connection might be found in the egocentric personality of Hamlet, and his reactions with Ophelia. Additionally, Galileo was developing the telescope and proving heliocentrism in the same period that Shakespeare was writing his greatest works. The macroscopic revelations that were striking Europe at the end of the 16^th century had a strong influence in Shakespeare’s works. (Viault, 1990)

Concurrent with the revolution in astronomy was the development of the scientific method. Francis Bacon’s work emphasized the process of collecting data to interpret broader generalizations. Shakespeare adopted this as a theme by forcing the reader or audience of his plays to interpret the complex actions of the characters. Without gathering evidence from different areas of the plot, the audience is unable to comprehend the overall themes and messages in many of Shakespeare’s works. In 1600, William Gilbert completed his work titled De magnete, which was a geological study of magnetism in nature. This could have influenced the theme of reactivity which Shakespeare commonly utilized in his plays.  In fact, Robert Mayhew, a Shakespearian scholar from the Royal Geographic Society, asserted that Shakespeare utilized a great deal of information from the developing field of geography in his works. In the opening lines of Measure for Measure, Shakespeare seems to believe in the solidity of contemporary science when the Duke says

“Since I am put to know that your own science exceeds, in that, the lists of all advice my strength can give you.” (Act I, Scene 1, Lines 5-7)

Additionally, in Henry V, Shakespeare communicates the promise that science offers when the Duke of Burgundy says

“Even so our houses and ourselves and children have lost, or do not learn for want of time, the sciences that should become our country.” (Act V, Scene 2, Lines 56-58)

It is important to realize that Shakespeare did not solely draw inspiration from contemporary literary critics and writers; he fused interdisciplinary themes together in his plays in order to draw in people from all walks of life and create a universal feeling of monistic optimism. (Mayhew, 1998; Viault, 1990)

In 1869, long after the bones of Shakespeare had decomposed in the ground, been eaten a furry caterpillar, broken down by amylase enzymes, and redistributed into the natural world, a Russian chemist named Vladimir Markovnikov developed a theory regarding atomic bonding. This theory, called Markovnikov’s rule, stated that when a molecule with a hydrogen atom attached bonds with an alkene, the hydrogen atom bonds to the carbon with the greatest amount of hydrogen atoms and the rest of the molecule bonds to the other carbon. For instance, in the reaction of 2-Methyl-1-propene with hydrogen bromide (shown below), the hydrogen atom will bond with the rightmost carbon, because it has two other hydrogen atoms attached to it, while the double-bonded carbon on the left has no hydrogen atoms attached to it. (McMurry, 2003)

            H₃C                                                                                                   CH_{3  } H

                                                                                                                       l       l   

                           C = CH₂                     +   HBr             à                 CH₃ – C – CH₂          

                        /                                                                                               l      

            H₃C                                                                                                    Br                                

 2-Methyl-1-propene, C₄H₈     Hydrogen bromide, HBr     2-Bromo-2-Methylpropane, C₄H₉Br     

Although Markovnikov lived and developed his theory roughly two hundred years after Shakespeare, the influence of reactivity as a theme is clear. Markovnikov might have been no more eloquent than the Jonas Brothers, but his fundamental ideas regarding molecular reactions were similar to Shakespeare’s fundamental ideas regarding human interactions. “What does it metaphysically mean that the hydrogen ion, the smallest of all positive and perfect things, goes to the carbon that already has so many?” One interpretation is the idea of elitism and the foundation for the political right. By already being so wealthy with hydrogen atoms, the semi-hydrated carbon becomes the ideal candidate for additional hydration. In many of Shakespeare’s works, the wealthy get wealthier and the poor get poorer. In As You Like It, Oliver secures his fortune by driving Orlando away to the Forest of Arden, which supports elitist themes. Conversely, Celia and Rosalind’s dialogue regarding Fortune and Nature supports the idea that the virtues and skills dealt to one at birth are not related to the hand that is dealt over the course of one’s life. Cyril Bryner argued that the Slavs misinterpreted Shakespeare’s works based on their prejudices, which may be the case in this sociopolitical scenario, but it is nevertheless true that the interdisciplinary contradictions that exist in Shakespeare’s works drive the plots and are evidence of the metaphysical plus and minus that exist on both the atomic and visual levels. (McMurry, 2003)

In simple terms, an atom is composed of a nucleus with electrons orbiting around it. In every level of study, the Bohr model, which can be recognized by a dot in the middle of a series of expanding circles, is utilized to create a clearer picture of the structure of an atom. While this may be ideal from an anatomical standpoint, it is not correct. The electron does not exist as an orbiting entity, but rather as a probability field of where it may exist. There a four different orbitals, or probability fields, which are called s, p, d, and f. An s-orbital is essentially a sphere, the p-orbital is like two balloons connected at a node, and the other two are more complicated. The oddity of the p-orbital is that the electron can never be observed in the node, only in the two balloons. Electrons in the p-orbitals jump from one balloon to the other without crossing through the node. This then begs the question: “What is the metaphysical representation of this on the visual level?”

Shakespeare portrays many of his characters as electrons, orbiting around the town, flirtatiously interacting with everyone they meet. For instance, in Troilus and Cressida, Shakespeare draws a metaphysical parallel between the interactions of men and the interactions of butterflies when Achilles says

“For men, like butterflies, shew not their mealy wings but to the summer.” (Act III, Scene 3, Lines 81-82)

 This may seem simple, but there is also a deeper significance to the probability field and the wave nature of matter. Shakespeare often portrays love in the same way that electrons randomly jump from one balloon of the p-orbital to the other. In Romeo and Juliet, love is depicted as an entity that capriciously decides when to strike, irrespective of what previous state the reactants were in. Shakespeare understood the metaphysical isopmorphisms that exist between the small and the large, and he demonstrated his comprehension through his plays.

“If, then, the observer of the electron or the audience of the play is allowed to call all interactions ‘random,’ what is free will?” If the Bohr model is accurate, every interaction that takes place would affect another one and everything would be decided based on something else. This would not allow for the idea of free will, but hence we have the wave nature of matter. It is odd that in some ways Shakespeare adopts the Bohr model in his plays by showing the plot as simply a chain of events. The argument then arises over whether or not one event forcibly occurs based on the events that came before it. “Does Romeo choose to love Juliet or is it forced by his chemical composition and the events that influenced him leading up to their first meeting?” Shakespeare takes a dualistic and evenhanded approach by adopting both; he portrays love as both capricious and forced, he shows that the universe is both random and ordered.

In closing, it seems that Shakespeare’s works are appreciable from both a literary and a scientific standpoint. Through his incorporations of contemporary and developing scientific theories, Shakespeare was able to ring in a broader understanding of reactions as a whole. The great monistic feel that his works delegate might be seen as a commentary on free will and determinism, on love and hate, and on God and man. The metaphysical isomorphisms which exist within the works of William Shakespeare are proof that an interdisciplinary broadening of the mind leads to greatness and that the connections between mysteries of different fields induce meaning in the universe.

In the poem "the road not taken" Plato's ideas about human nature fits in with the difficulty the narrator faces in choosing which path to go down. He seems to experience an internal conflict between the different desires of his soul. He desired to go down the path which was "grassy and wanted wear" even though the other path was "just as fair" showing his reason in choosing which path to stick to. There are also some Platonic ideas that fit in with Larkin's poem "this be the verse". You can ask yourself what makes Larkin create such a rebellious poem. You could associate it with his human nature which he would have derived from his soul in an earlier life or you could blame it on his nurture, blaming his upbringing as the reason why he has written such a poem. If you like Plato are a dualist then you could blame his behaviour to his soul. However although the previous idea may fit in with the poem, Larkin contradicts Plato's ideas of humans being "social creatures". Larkin in the poem refuses help from his parents and encourages you not to have children. This goes against Plato's idea of humans being social as Larkin opposes cooperation with your parents and reproduction.

Hobbes analyses human nature in a rather negative and unflattering way. He basically says that our nature is to only think of ourselves, saying that we are egotists. Some of Hobbes' ideas also fit into both poems. In the poem "the road not taken" Frost describes how he took one path over the other as it had a "better claim because it was grassy and wanted wear". This shows how Frost judged the paths on their appearance, eventually going down the nicer looking path because of its attractive resources, much like what Hobbes discusses in the quest for felicity. This decision over two paths also fits in with his ideas of two sorts of rationality, as Frost rationally chooses to go down the path less trodden as if to even out the difference between the ruggedness of the paths. However if all the people chose the same path as he had that path would become much more worn than the other. Hobbes' ideas also fit in with Larkin's poem "this be the verse". Larkin seems to write the poem egotistically as if he is only looking for self preservation. Larkin also seems to want to acquire felicity as he uses strong language and bold statements to try and show his power over the readers as if he is trying to gain felicity, much like Hobbes emphasised how humans were in a constant quest for felicity.

Rousseau on the other hand thought Hobbes was wrong about human nature, agreeing that the primary motivation was self-preservation but added that this was not everything about being human. Hobbes agrees with the notion of living more "in harmony with nature". This can be seen in "the road not taken" poem as Frost, when choosing the paths, respects the nature of the paths and chose the path which "wanted wear" as if he is working with nature. Also later on in the poem he tells us how he took the path less travelled by and "that has made all the difference" which sounds like the idea of self-improvement. Like Rousseau suggests that one human drive is self-improvement, Frost ended up being pleased that he chose the path less trodden as if he had gained life experience. Some of Rousseau's ideas are also shown in Larkin's poem "this be the verse". Larkin displays his innovative ideas on how you should forget family life as it "fucks you up" and that you should not have any kids yourself. This advice that he is offering us shows us that he is trying to not just improve himself but also improving humanity as a whole with his strange innovations. Even if the innovations are pretty odd he still displays advice on how you should live your life, showing that he is trying to improve humanity.

Both poets show ideas that are similar to Hobbes in the way that they both demonstrate ideas that could be associated with the quest for felicity. In the poem "the road not taken" Frost talks about how he chose one path over the other, showing his prejudice for not choosing the other because it did not have green grass. This could be seen as selfish as he was merely concerned with choosing the path which he preferred. This same selfishness, associated with the egotistic ideas of Hobbes, can be seen in the poem "this be the verse" by Larkin. Larkin displays his thoughts on how parents "fuck you up" and how the concept of being with your parents or family messes you up. This shows a concern for only himself as he does not think about how his parents might feel, which could mean that he is selfish. However the poem by Frost does give reasons for his choice whereas Larkin only states that you should avoid family life without giving sufficient reason.

Some of the ideas of Plato, Hobbes and Rousseau fit in well with the poems on their ideas about human nature. However the poems also give their own views on the "human condition" as well. Larkin's poem seems to have the ideas of the quest of felicity which Hobbes was associated with and Frost's poem can be associated well with the works of Plato with the desires of the soul in choosing the right path. Between the two poems the ideas of the human condition contrasted a lot with each other, with hardly any similarities between the two poems. However you can interpret them to adapt to Hobbes idea on the quest for felicity which both poems seem to display ideas about.

The poem begins with a statement on the nature of change. The speaker suggests that change is not dramatic, easily recognised. Instead the is a natural, gradual, gentle change;

Things do not explode

They fail, they fade.

The use of “explode”, the rejection of that same idea, the confident tone of the poems opening line and the use of the alliterative “fail” and “fade” present the reader with a strong, persuasive declaration. The following four couplets then offer examples that illustrate the premise or proposition. This is an effect rhetorical technique. One such example of how things end can be found in the way

Sunlight fades from the flesh

Or

The foam drains quick in the sand

These lines represent snapshots. This cinematography gives a greater insight into the movement and colour that represent change. These attractive images enhance the senses of the reader. The repetitive F sounds - fail, fade, fades, flesh, foam - and the repetition of “they” and “as” contribute to the poems musical quality.

In the third couplet the word “even” announces another and stronger instance of the speakers belief in the nature of things:

Even love's lightning flesh

Has no thunderous end

Here there is the recognition of loves exciting nature - it's “lightning flash” - and also, it's fading away petering out, its ending without drama. This is due to the emotion “dies” slowly over a long period of time. The transient nature of life. Walcott presents the death of love as a truly distressing thing. The vacuum and silence after the slow fading of love is represented with a truly haunting image.

It dies with the sound

Of flowers fading like the flesh

The image of fading flowers is a familiar one. No flower explodes and the fact that nature fades away is a very effective reminder of the truth that things “fail” and “fade”. We know it, the poet says, from our noticing of the gradual fading away of flesh when wee use a pumice stone.

From sweating pumice stone

The speaker presents us with the final, intriguing couplet

Till we are left

With the silence that surrounds Beethoven's head.

The image of Beethoven brings alive an image of brilliance, genius, music, and creativity. The poem's final image reminds us of Beethoven's mind and his imagination expressed through his masterful music. This last stanza perhaps contradicts the first 5, as it can be interpreted that the work of art, in this instance music, can live beyond death, beyond the silence. However it can also be interpreted that even a great man such as Beethoven, will eventually “fail” and “fade”. It becomes a striking image of Endings.

In the poem, “Tintern Abbey”, Wordsworth uses a variety of overstatement, simile, and metaphor to demonstrate how his appreciation for nature has changed. Wordsworth’s personal growth relates to how as people mature they lose their carefree joy that they felt as children. In return they gain the ability to feel a new, more spiritual joy through gaining perspective on human nature.

            Wordsworth starts the poem off with three significant lines: “FIVE years have past; five summers, with the length / Of five long winters! and again I hear / These waters …” (lines 1-3). It is now known that Wordsworth has been to this area before from the “again” in line two and that his time away was not enjoyable from the reference to “five long winters”. The connotation of winter is dark and dreary, reflecting Wordsworth’s attitude while he has been in the city away from nature. Wordsworth describes a peaceful scene including a spring “with a soft inland murmur” (line 4). This use of personification creates a serene atmosphere, the murmur suggesting a soft, soothing sound. This build up reveals the inner calm Wordsworth associates with nature. He feels nature’s peace inside himself.

            The next section of the poem is a stark contrast in tone compared to the nature scene. Wordsworth changes the setting to: “lonely rooms, and 'mid the din / Of towns and cities…” (lines 26-27). The use of words such as “lonely” and “din” give off a more somber and dark tone than was felt previously. The fact that nature is a great joy for Wordsworth is also reinforced as he talks about the city: “I have owed to them / In hours of weariness, sensations sweet, / Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart; / And passing even into my purer mind…” (lines 27-30). The “them” that Wordsworth refers to are his memories from his time spent in nature. The overstatement that these memories are felt in his blood, heart, and purer mind goes to show how powerful these memories are for him. He uses them to brighten his soul during a dark and unsatisfactory period of his life.

            After reminiscing on the city life, Wordsworth shifts his attention to his interactions with nature at a younger age. He remembers: “what I was when first / I came among / these hills; when like a roe / I bounded o'er the mountains, by the sides / Of the deep rivers, and the lonely streams, / Wherever nature led…” (lines 68-72). This description shows a basic joy from being in nature. His actions are described in an almost animalistic fashion, bounding as a deer does and simply following wherever nature led him. His connection with nature at this time is purely in his heart; rational thoughts are not involved with this earlier experience. This idea is reinforced by the personification of nature “leading” him. He is not consciously aware of his actions but simply doing what is enjoyable. The fact that this joy is a baser feeling is further demonstrated when Wordsworth refers to this feeling as: “The coarser pleasures of my boyish days…” (line 75). He refers to the joy he felt in nature as a coarse one, meaning that was a simplistic and primitive joy, at least more so than the joy he currently feels in his return to nature. Wordsworth also reveals that he has matured since these carefree times by referring to them as his “boyish days”.

            This theme of maturation follows Wordsworth as he returns to the present. He immediately acknowledges a change in his connection with nature when he says: “That time is past, / And all its aching joys are now no more…” (lines 85-86). At first this seems like a loss for Wordsworth, but the paradox of “aching joys” reveals that the pleasure he felt before was not entirely complete. He felt the euphoria of being in a primal and peaceful setting, but without the intellectual aspect he, could not fully appreciate it. He goes on to say: “Not for this / Faint I, nor mourn nor murmur, other gifts / Have followed; for such loss, I would believe, /Abundant recompence. For I have learned / To look on nature, not as in the hour / Of thoughtless youth; but hearing oftentimes / The still, sad music of humanity…” (lines 87-93). Wordsworth feels that he has received an adequate trade. In return for losing his simplistic joy he has gained perspective. Now that he has made the connection between nature itself and human nature, he has gained the intellectual aspect that he had been missing in his earlier days. Through this gain he feels he understands humanity better and thus feels as though he is on a level above man’s realm. Wordsworth develops a spiritual connection, feeling as if he is above mortal thoughts when in nature.

            Wordsworth then goes on to talk about his younger sister, and how she is now in the simplistic stage of joy. He describes her relationship with nature as this:

“My dear, dear Sister! and this prayer I make, / Knowing that Nature never did betray / The heart that loved her; 'tis her privilege, / Through all the years of this our life, to lead / From joy to joy: for she can so inform / The mind that is within us, so impress / With quietness and beauty, and so feed / With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, / Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men, / Nor greetings where no kindness is, nor all / The dreary intercourse of daily life, / Shall e'er prevail against us, or disturb / Our cheerful faith, that all which we behold / Is full of blessings…” (lines 126-139). 

Wordsworth realizes that this is a time that his sister needs to appreciate, for this is the only time in her life where she will be able to feel this simple joy without needing any justification for it. The days of youth and carefree enjoyment are fleeting and before long she will be forced to mature. He also realizes that as she does mature she will find new ways to appreciate that which is around her, drawing insight on life and human nature. In turn, this new perspective will become her ultimate blessing, causing her to more fully and deeply appreciate all the enjoyable moments of her life.

            It is through his reflections on his sister that Wordsworth makes the connection between his personal development and the development of all people. His sister goes through the same stages that he went through, from the unappreciated joy felt in younger years to the more complete comprehension of why that joy is felt. Wordsworth says that as life goes on people mature, and a trade is made, but all stages of life must be appreciated because they can never be regained once they are lost. He is almost bittersweet in his recollection of his youthful enthusiasm describing himself as “more like a man / Flying from something that he dreads, than one / Who sought the thing he loved…” (lines 72-74). Despite this description, he makes it clear that he feels that the trade in joys is fair. He appreciates his new found intellectual joy, and ultimately feels that this is the better kind. He better understands the nature of his fellow man and feels a deeper, more spiritual connection with nature than he ever had before.   

The bear swats poor Wally but gets stung viciously in doing so. The hive is saved, but Wally lays prone. The queen tries to save Wally's life but can't. And, in his sacrifice Wally has for the last part of his life been one of the bees, his friends. There are other poems and tales in poems about friendship and love. And that is what makes this book a trully remarkable find and purchase. The book sells online in Amazon.com and can also be purchased directly from the author by emailing her at noras@zoominternet.net for a signed, personally addressed book.

“All the important studies on the subgenre conclude that nature writing is "in the end concerned not only with fact but with fundamental spiritual and aesthetic truth.” (Foltz, p.115) When writing about nature, spirituality and truth go hand in hand. I am not making an argument that A Passage to India is a “nature writing”, but the images and the consistency with which they appear in the novel, lend itself to assume that Forster created this vivid and iconic world for some specific reason, much like nature writing. Then in the same respect we can assume Forster was able to use this kind of “Nature writing” as a way to show aesthetic and spiritual truth.

With this in mind let us look at some of these images in the work. “The sky settles everything - not only climates and seasons but when the earth shall be beautiful. By herself she can do little - only feeble outbursts of flowers. But when the sky chooses, glory can rain into the Chandrapore bazaars or a benediction pass from horizon to horizon.” (Forster, p.5) This is one of the first colorful images of nature that Forster presents us with. Looking closely at this passage, what can we take from it? The “sky”, as it is addressed here, looks to be in control of most everything. Without it choosing to rain glory down on Chandrapore, life could not exist. We only have a story to tell here because, in a way, the sky is letting us. With the specification of Chandrapore in this passage we could also assume that at least here in this village the sky is ruler, but we cannot assume that anywhere else is governed by such a being. However, since our story mainly takes shape in this region we are able to accept this reign of the sky as a staple throughout the rest of the narrative

Something else in this passage strikes me differently. The personification of the sky shows it having a will of its own. The ability to choose denotes a rational thought, and ability to reason, which coincidently is the very thing that separates humans from animals according to Aristotle. This then gives to the sky not only human powers but many other attributes we can associate with humans, the ability to discern, to deny, to rationally weigh the consequences, to play favorites, and perhaps an ability for a sense of justice. There is the reference to a benediction or blessing that the sky gives. This implies a religious “priest like” persona, thus making any rule the sky has, a sort of theocracy. Suddenly E.M. Forster"s use of nature cannot be denied. When the sky, who rules over this land, is human-like in many ways, it is now a character in this narrative.

“It matters so little to the majority of living beings what the minority, that calls itself human, desires or decides. Most of the inhabitants of India do not mind how India is governed. Nor are the lower animals of England concerned about England, but in the tropics the indifference is more prominent, the inarticulate world is closer at hand and readier to resume control as soon as men are tired.” (Forster, p.123)

This passage is taken from chapter X in the novel, a chapter utterly devoted to the explanation of nature and its role in things thus far. This passage sets apart the nature of England and India, the West from the East. It does appear that nature has an almost volatile role, where control of the country could shift in an instant, “as soon as men are tired”. This volition speaks of the difference between West and East. Nature seems more powerful, or maybe just more involved in the lives of the beings inhabiting its space than its English counter part. It is obvious and almost redundant to assert that there is indeed a difference between West and East, but exactly what that difference is and how vicious the meeting of the two will actually be is the true question. Forster's novel is just that, the clash of two ideals. Through the characters, which we can now include nature itself among them, Forster plays out in representational ways the collision of East and West with nature representing, in many behaviors, the East.

In the novel nature resembles different religions and philosophies that are native to the Eastern mind. With the way nature clashes with the British, and if nature represents the East, than the East or the Indians are actually oppressing the British foreigners, not literally in the novel but symbolically. This appears to be, at first glance, an argument against imperialism, but I believe there is a broader observation Forster is making, and to call it imperialism might be to put too fine a point on it.

One might dispute the notion that Forster, being a Westerner himself, is not able to symbolize Eastern thought, or that he is even aware of it. Benita Parry, in a note within the article “Materiality and Mystification in A Passage to India”, talks about how Forster feels he has obtained a good grasp of the Eastern ideals at work in his novel.

“Although Forster was not a scholar of Hindu philosophies, he was familiar with the myths, epics, and iconography of India's varied cultures, and he found the dialectic style of Hindu thought congenial. On re-reading the Bhagovad-gita in 1912 before his first visit to India, Forster observed that he felt he had now got a hold of the structure of its thought: “its division into Harmony Motion Inertia (Purity Passion Darkness).” (Note 14)

This being said let us look at how nature and those Eastern ideas of philosophy and religion are tied to each other, first within the notions themselves and then into how E.M. Forster parallels India/the East and nature. The major philosophies of the East have been tempered within the sphere of religious influence. Buhda, and Confucius were spiritual icons as well as philosophers whose teachings are continuously studied to this day. So to get a grasp of the mindset of the East we should look to the attributes of its major religions, Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Islam and Confucianism. In his article “Apropos of Nothing: Chance and Narrative in Forster's A Passage to India,” Leland Monk describes this connection between Eastern thought and the novel, “The three sections of Forster's A Passage to India, Mosque, Caves and Temple each represent a different aspect of Indian religions and comprise different versions of an English writer's Western perspective on certain aspects of Indian Culture.” (392) Though different in many aspects, these religions have a common theme; their views of nature are indeed quite different from that of the West, which will be addressed later.

Buddhism's respect for nature derives from its view of “Nirvana” a state of Zen-like consciousness defined as complete inner peace, the difficult to attain goal of all Buddhists. Suggesting another link between Buddhist ideas and nature, Michael Barnhart in his article “Ideas of Nature in an Asian Context”, says this, “If anything, Buddhist conceptions of the phenomenal and especially of nature suggest a kind of pantheism (as it is held that "plants and trees attain Buddhahood" in certain circles). (10) This gives an inherent value to the earth and a connection shared with humans when both are striving for the same goal. It also shares a connection to the divine, finding a spirit within the plants because only spirits are able to obtain nirvana. “Mahayana Buddhism, such as Huayen …view the whole as a vast organic unity of interdependent life-forms.” (Barnhart, p.5) There is a oneness within Buddhist beliefs that connect it to nature itself. Buddhists obtain nirvana through the “negation of all things” and the material things of this world are merely distractions to ones true mission. (Barnhart, p.5) Also it is believed the art of meditation is a way to achieve Nirvana. When meditating, the word “ohm” is uttered to clear one's mind. Ohm, it is said, is the root of all speech or the “nature” of speech.

When thinking of these connections to nature and the practices of Buddhism, one will notice similarities within Forster's novel, specifically within the Marabar Caves. Inside the caves there is nothing, “Nothing is inside them, they were sealed up before the creation of pestilence or treasure; if mankind grew curious and excavated, nothing, nothing would be added to the sum of good or evil.”(Forster, p.124) This is the absence of all things, good or evil, that the Buddhist ways say is the path to enlightenment or Nirvana. “The "caves" section of the novel is, quite literally, about nothing.” (Monk, p.394) When meditating, one's eyes are closed not unlike the utter darkness found within the caves. The Ohm, which is said also when meditating, is frighteningly similar to the noise of the echo found in, and special to, the Marabar Caves. “Whatever is said, the same monotonous noise replies, and quivers up and down the walls until it is absorbed into the roof. “Boum” is the sound as far as the human alphabet can express it, or “bou-oum,” or “ou-boum,” - utterly dull.” (Forster, p.163)

A major facet of Hinduism revolves around reincarnation, the act of being reborn after one dies. When reincarnated the being “evolves” toward a Godlike existence or “devolves” further down the scale toward a worm or insect. I use the words evolve and devolve connotatively, I do not wish to state that humans born to different families are somehow less evolved than others, I am appealing to the fact that a human can reincarnate as a worm and visa-versa To assure a higher place in the next life, Karma is practiced. Karma basically states that, the better the works one does within his life, the better the chance is of moving upward. This however also boasts a relationship then between nature and the humans living in India. “Defining karma as "the persistence of moral value," … indeed, if we can be reborn as slugs or worms and moral value is conserved across transmigratory relations, then slugs and worms have value.” (Barnhart, p.4) A simple bit of conversation had by Dr. Aziz and Mrs. Moore demonstrates this theory of value in terms of East and West and a deep respect for nature. “She exclaimed; she had forgotten the snakes. "For example, a six-spot beetle," he continued. "You pick it up, it bites, you die." "But you walk about yourself." "Oh, I am used to it." "Used to snakes?" They both laugh.” (Forster, p.19)

Here the Westerner, Mrs. Moore, (who only really represents the West in this scene because she is among the first Westerners we meet in the story and it is not until later we realize she is closest to the Eastern ideas than almost any other) would disturb nature with the act of picking up the beetle, which results in death. The Easterner however realizes the value of even the insects of India and respects the beetle and snakes enough to know not to disturb them. Value is defined by Webster's dictionary as a principle regarded as worthwhile or desirable. Because Aziz understands and is “used to” his environment, he has the consideration or respect of its inherent worthwhileness, so to not pick up the beetle thus dying. This is also a great example of an Easterner who practices the Eastern Hindu philosophies even if he is not of that faith, giving a more widespread quality to Eastern thought. “Eastern views do have an understanding of nature and ground an arc of value over the phenomenal.” (Barnhart, p.6) Michael G. Barnhart elucidates the ideas of the East's acceptance of the unknown. This statement isn't saying Eastern thought idealizes “value” over the “phenomenal”, but the East is more at ease with such notions because they see the value in it, even if they don't understand it. Eastern philosophy suggests, as we just witnessed in the Hindu view of nature, that a mystery such as our world should earn our respect and a sense of significance.

Taoism and Confucianism's ideas of yin and yang also play a large part in the ideals of the novel. These ideas of opposing contradictory forces keeping existence in balance are a staple of Eastern thought.

“Forster's A passage to India is constructed upon a double vision which encompasses two opposing verities - Being and non-Being. The notion of non-Being involves the cosmos in an undifferentiated muddle devoid of significance and hierarchy. In the novel it is epitomized by the Marabar Caves whose genesis lies beyond space, time and consciousness. The Caves precede in time Vishnu and Siva and thus the Hindu pantheon to another undistinguished detail.” (D'Cruz, p.193)

This concept of being and non-being is directly expressed in the difference between the major plot points of the first two sections of the novel. (Barnhart, pp.4-6) In the “Mosque” the major plot point, or action the narrative centers on, is the bridge party; the idea of bringing the Indians and the British together for a social event, this is the “being”. Because many of the characters are not looking forward to this engagement the concept is felt forced. The bridge party is also filled with many different “things”. It is decorated and filled with conversation. Contradictory, the “Caves” section of the novel, which suggests a volatile separation of Indians from the British, this is “non-being”. The Caves themselves are devoid of “things”, dull in appearance and lacking conversation, just “boum”. The very structure of the novel in the first two sections denotes the Eastern yin and yang principle. If we are then to follow the logic of yin/yang, which states that for every deed of yin there is an equal deed of yang, than we are also to assume that the “Caves” section is caused by the “Mosque”.

The concept of “ch'i”, also a Taoist belief, asserts that there is a life force or a “ch'i” in every living thing, concluding that all of existence is connected by this energy. This is also found in A Passage to India perhaps not as frequent, but less subtle. “The squeals it (the squirrel) gave were in tune with the infinite.” (Forster, p.123)

“Nature' has at least two rather different meanings in English: (1) not artificial, free of human contrivance, and (2) the way something is, its physis.” (Barnhart, p.7) These meanings in themselves seem to contradict each other. If (2) is true then (1) can also be true, it is a refinement perhaps of the definition. But if (1) is true than (2) is not necessarily true. The Nature of a computer is its miniscule bits of technology; the very thing the first definition says is not nature. This contradiction in definition is a perfect example of the difference between Eastern and Western views of nature. Eastern thought is at ease with contradiction (Yin and Yang) and prizes the phenomenal over the rational (the Hindu belief that value can be found in phenomenon). Nature is described by its very definition as a paradox. Nature's links to Eastern thought in the novel are the characteristics portrayed by Forster. “There is a genuine reluctance to draw metaphysical distinctions between the predominant feature of humans, their mental capacities, and the rest of what there is.” (Barnhart, p.10) The “oneness” the Indians share with nature through the concepts of ch'i, Hindu value, the act of meditation, the narrative device of personification, and the fact that nature appears to mirror the beliefs of the Indians and the East in general. “Indeed the use of India as icon of the metaphysical derives from what has been described as a "scholarship … replete with preferences for the speculative, religious minded, idealist and/or Orientalist kind."” (Parry, p.176)

Now, understanding the link between Eastern thought and nature as being represented in a very Eastern way, let us look to the British in the novel. To grasp a secure handle on the concept of the West, one will look at (among others) Mr. Fielding, Mrs. Moore, and Adela Quested. These three characters seem to be at different places on a ladder of connection to nature and the East. At first glance we might be able to tell the hierarchy as well from just their names. Mrs. Moore's last name is piece of environment in itself, a moor. However this is a very English bit of terrain, I would say you would be hard pressed to find many moors in India, but they are plentiful in the United Kingdom. This signifies that Mrs. Moore is in touch with the Eastern ideas of nature and fits in quite comfortably, but is still very English. If anyone in the story truly bridges the gap it is her. Mr. Fielding, as his name might suggest, is “fieldish”. He is perhaps closer to these ideas than even he himself would care to think, but is not quite there yet. Mr. Fielding though certainly finds a friend easily in Aziz. Ms. Quested however appears to be searching for her truth. She is on a “quest”, a passage to her own India. This is also mirrored by desire to “see the real India.”

Before we look at the West's view of nature itself it might be useful to examine what the novel says the characters think of the scope of Eastern thought, especially that of yin/yang, the negation of deities, and a Buddhist view of reality. Mr. Fielding and Adela quested are less inclined to understand the Eastern mind, as indeed Forster implies in his novel by the reactions to different Eastern sayings, and therefore setup for the Western mindset.

“To the Western mind this simultaneous affirmation and negation of divinity in Indian religious belief is confounding. Fielding the rational Englishman dismisses the phrase "There is no God but God" as "only a game with words, really, a religious pun not a religious truth" … Adela Quested repeats to herself the phrase "[i]n space things touch, in time things part" and in her rational mind, "she could not decide whether the phrase was a philosophy or a pun" For fielding and miss Quested, such phrases seem to dissolve the logical premises of their own assertions. They simply cannot comprehend this "mixture of fatuity and philosophy" that is India.” (Monk, p.397)

The West views nature as something that must be conquered and has been at war

with nature, since the book of Genesis where a serpent tricks Adam and Eve into eating a piece of forbidden fruit. (Genesis chapter 3)

“In "The Historic Roots of our Ecology Crisis," … historian Lynn White Jr… documents the rise of new technologies during the Western middle ages … Wind power was "Harnessed" for the first time, and water power was extended far beyond the milling of grain to power the sawing of timbers and pump the bellows of blast furnaces. The old "scratch plow" was abandoned in favor of a new kind of plow built like a gigantic knife blade to "attack" the earth with "ruthlessness" and "violence" while at the same time requiring plow teams of eight oxen and thus entirely new forms of social organization.” (Foltz, p.119)

The novel is set in a time (early 1900's) when the West has a decent grasp of, and

adapted to, their own environment. Automobiles kept travel in adverse weather miniscule. Homes had many comforts that shun the elements such as steeped roofs to keep the snow from piling and fireplaces to heat the house. Even in India they have already begun defying nature with technology and their own religion by appealing to God. Jeffrey Heath describes this very observation in his article, “A Voluntary Surrender: Imperialism in A Passage to India.”

“Most of the British characters resist their environment, sometimes with the aid of the national anthem ('that curt series of demands on Jehovah'), and at other times with such mechanical "defences" as perforated zinc doors, electric fans, and refrigeration. While Godbole is at home in a universe which he accepts as a mystery, the British handle it, as they do India, by force and brain-work, and by refusing to leave "a gap in the line.” (Heath, p.288)

Heath draws the connection that the English try to manage the environment as

they do India itself. Perhaps a connection can be made then that Nature will act as India intends to. Benita Parry describes the situation in the novel resides not simply in a critique of the British in India, “but in configuring India"s natural terrain and cognitive traditions as inimical to the British presence.”(180) At this point, at the commencement of the story, India had not started the revolution that was soon to come, though Forster was aware of such things, having published the book in 1924 several years after Gandhi had risen as a political figure. The differences of East and West have collided in this one place, India. This is the response as E.M. Forster sees it. This is the way India is viewed through the eyes of the British, with quotes from A Passage to India. “Primal,' "Dark," "Fists and fingers," "unspeakable," Fearsomely advancing to the town with the sunset - these phrases signal the fear and insecurity the imperialists experienced, confronted with what they could not master; to reduce it to stasis was to contain that fear and hold that threat at bay. (Parry, p.185) Then there is Nature's/the Eastern view of the British, “A Passage to India construes the sub-continent's material world, cultural forms and systems of thought as a resistant to discursive appropriation by its conquerors” (Parry, p.175) On the one hand there is the fear the British possess of a potentially violent situation which they feel they should control by force, but is untamable. On the other hand there is a defiant spiritual landscape representing all the deliberations of the East.

“The eloquent stones, boulders, rocks, and caves of an awesome and ancient geological formation, the animate fields and ambulant hills, the inhospitable soil, the importunities of a prominent inarticulate world, the creaturely power of the sun, these speak a defiant material presence which is both a scandal to the invaders' epistemological categories, and a threat to their boast of possessing India.” (Parry, p.180-181)

The situation is at a boiling point when the section of the “Caves” begins in the novel. Nature begins to assert her power over the British. “The heat had leapt forward in the last hour, the street was deserted as if a catastrophe had cleaned off humanity during the inconclusive talk.” (Forster, p.123) With its heat India is attacking its invaders. Men start to retreat when they know of “The bad weather coming,” (Forster, p.123) This is not an isolated event either, “All over the city and over much of India the same retreat on the part of humanity was beginning into cellars, up hills, under trees.” (Forster, p.123) This passive aggressive behavior does not last for long. With Mrs. Moore and Ms. Quested's “invasion” into the caves the violence has turned simply aggressive. While the Indians, (at least Aziz) are innocent, a type of rape did occur. “To the Anglo-Indians, Miss Quested is the victim of the infamous lust of Indian men; and in the story of her derangement, the Indian Landscape figures as a violent male principle- the rocks of the Marabar Hills appearing to rise "Abruptly, insanely", and her body pierced by the spines of the cactuses growing on the hillside. (Parry, p.179)

The environment around Ms. Quested is ambiguous in that we could argue the hills are not at fault for Ms. Quested running down them half mad. But one could indeed argue that something about the caves, something natural caused her to flee them, they certainly had an affect on Mrs. Moore as well. The British response is to lash out, seizing the opportunity to attack the East and India. The passive attitudes shift during the trial and now both sides are at each other's throats. Mr. McBryde wants all of nature, symbolized by the caves, and thus representationally, all of the different Eastern way of thinking to disappear. “I wish the Marabar hills and all they contain were at the bottom of the sea.” (Forster, p.185) It is notable why Mr. McBryde said “All they contain” for the caves are famous for containing nothing, nothing of material substance that is. This line states that Mr. McBryde wishes all of the Eastern philosophies and religions' ideals to be cast into the sea. Even through his bigotry, he puts into words an interesting truth.

“Mr. McBryde was shocked at his downfall, but no Indian ever surprised him, because he had a theory about climatic zones. The theory ran: "all unfortunate natives are criminals at heart, for the simple reason that they live south of latitude 30. They are not to blame, they have not a dog"s chance - we could be like them if we settled here.” (Forster, p.184)

Besides the horrid imagery of Indians like dogs and criminals that his prejudiced nature concocted, there might be some truth to his climatic zone theory. The Eastern philosophies built on traditional Eastern religions have always been settled in these climates, whereas the Western philosophy in a cooler climate. Is it wrong to think that a person's world view is affected by his environment? Is this why there is such a clash of ideals in the city of Chandrapore? Would the Indians, had they been the opposing force within Britain, faced an opposition by nature itself? Is this more evidence for anti-imperialism as Forster sees it? These are obviously tough questions to grapple with, so let us keep them in mind as we continue onward through the texts.

“A passage to India is a book about latecomers and invaders on foreign soil. The intruders are the Hindus, the Moslems, and the British in India, but they can also be seen as novelists attempting to shape in regions as yet uncolonized by the imagination.” (Heath, p.287) Nature was India before Indians set foot on it. The locals have not any more right to rule over India as the British do, for India cannot be ruled. So, if all these groups of people are foreigners on India's soil than why are the British the only ones so affected? Heath goes on to explain how beneficial “it is to realize that no conquest is ever fully accomplished by force, and not even by such graceful means as elegant entertainment, magnanimous justice, or, especially, beauty. (Heath, p.291) With statements like these to say that no one has a right to claim this land and no one can take it by force, we could assume India can never be conquered without a spirit of acceptance. To realize, as the East does, that a connection with the environment will allow one to live peacefully without a constant war with nature, is to realize that is the most ownership one could achieve in this land. “India is a diverse place. With its kaleidoscope of cults and factions, it is too vast to manage or comprehend. The mind can't "take hold of such a country”. (Heath, p.289) The British have no hope if they desire to rule India. Not only is India and its nature uncontrollable, but it is incomprehensible. India is a mystery that cannot be solved. So when East and West meet, which principles are more likely to accept the surrounding nature for what it is? The East will.

With this revelation does this mean again that there is a deterrent against imperialism here? A fundamental fallacy to this argument would be to decipher these environmental representations found in A Passage to India in light of, perhaps China"s, invasion of India. This would also be an imperialistic relationship without the philosophical consequences of nature's power over a different paradigm of thinking. This leads me to think there is something further-reaching than this.

“Traces of Imperialism' in modernist writing, must not be sought "in obvious places, in content, or in representation". Rather they are to be found in the invention of "forms that inscribe a new sense of the absent global colonial system on the very syntax of poetic language itself" (Parry, p.175)

A modernist novel speaking of India will in fact inherently possess an imperialist sense, so if it were to be “represented”, in this case by nature, it would be fundamentally redundant and a waste of novelistic space. Realizing this makes us ask the question as to what E.M. Forster is getting at. Since this is not simply an anti-imperialist novel let us go over the facts again to sum up the argument. Nature is in control of India. Nature affects the British in a harmful way, but it is not abrasive to the Eastern ways of life. Nature is in conflict mirroring the conflict of East and West within the novel. The novel ends with the possible union of East and West with a friendship of Aziz and Mr. Fielding. E.M. Forster seems to be relating a story of the flawed relationship between Eastern and Western thought “Eastern views are essentially irrelevant to the West because of the radical differences in their respective traditions.” (Barnhart, p.6) E.M. Forster is making a case that unity and peace will not work until the West is able to understand these Eastern philosophies which the people of the East model their lives after. I also feel it is safe to conclude that the East should also understand the West. How many times in the novel does a misunderstanding occur? Is it not this the basis for every single conflict in the narrative? The ending of the novel reiterates this point when Aziz and Mr. Fielding go riding through the woods together.

“Presently the ground opened into full sunlight and they saw a grassy slope bright with butterflies, also a cobra, which crawled across doing nothing in particular, and disappeared among some custard apple trees. There were round white clouds in the sky, and white pools on the earth; the hills in the distance were purple.” (Forster, p.356)

The animals, sunlight, trees and landscape all seem to be celebrating the union of the two men. Once again when all seems right and peaceful there is the discussion of ruling India, and who should be in power and the mocking of Aziz's beliefs; the once peaceful unity the men had with the environment makes one final decree. When the two men ask why they can't be friends even though they do desire it, this is nature's response.

“But the Horses didn't want it - they swerved apart; the earth didn't want it, sending up rocks through which riders must pass single file; the temples, the tank, the jail, the palace, the birds, the carrion, the guest house, that came into view as they issued from the gap and saw Mau beneath: they didn't want it, they said in their hundred voices, “No, not yet,” and the sky said, “No, not here.” (Forster, p.362)

Eastern thought is connected to Nature in this novel because it has a oneness, or at least an understanding with, nature. Accepting nature as a mystery is not something the British are able to do, thus never fully accepting Indians either. Without understanding of the Eastern thought process These British will never attain their goal of ruling India. “The world of A Passage to India repeats ad infinitum the cosmic contradiction in terms of the self and not-self, the ruler and the ruled, illusion and reality. Only when the vision is turned on both sides of the contradiction is understanding possible. (D'Cruz, p.204) This statement speaks to a stalemate where the British are not yet willing to begin the process of accepting this. There is then a rift between East and West that E.M. Forster documents in his novel. His final conclusion is that when East and West cannot fully understand where each other is coming from, if they cannot grasp the understanding of other cultures than there will always be a rift. To be on the “passage” to “more than India”, that search for truth and understanding must come about, without this E.M. Forster's bleak conclusion rings true. There will never be a friendship, “No, not here.”

In The beginning of the essay, the author witnesses two March Hares fighting each other to the death during one of his adventure expeditions (pg.195). The above quarrel reminded him very much of that of two pet doves of his, which he had nurtured from a year earlier, as the same incidence occurred between these animals also. The doves had already inflicted horrible lacerations upon each other, and one of them would have certainly faced death without the narrator’s interference. These two events show that specific animals would murder their own kind without any natural inhibition. In later pages of the chapter, the author describes wolves fighting at a local zoo he had once visited. Upon facing death by the elder wolf, the younger, meeker wolf showed a sign of forfeit and humbleness by exposing its neck, being the weakest and most fatal area of the wolf’s body (pg.198), to the bare fangs of the stronger wolf’s jaw. With this action by the latter, the elder wolf immediately returns to a peaceful, calm state towards the younger wolf as long as it remained in that exposing position. Why?

The above incidents lead to the theory or conclusion of certain social inhibitions that are present in some species of animals, while others seem to be devoid of them. Social inhibitions, certain actions or signs of humbleness prevent animals from causing further harm to their quarrels. It’s almost identical to that of human beings’ conscience. In a sense of moral codes, doves and hares are more cruel and cold-hearted than dangerous wolves, since they don’t exhibit, possess or understand these inhibitions. Different species fighting each other don’t follow or obey these morals and social laws and inhibitions because they don’t recognize them. Each species of animals have different, unique social inhibitions.

Near the end of the essay, the author mentions submissive attitudes among humans. Though we may not be able to recognize them, the submissions may include lowering of hats, a simple nod of acknowledgment, etc. The above theory ties in with the different arsenals of weapons capable to be unleashed by mankind and the amount of destruction they can inflict upon human kind. In this quote, “The day may come when the whole of mankind will be faced with the possibility of each wiping the other out completely. Shall we then behave like doves or like wolves? (pg.211), it poses an important question upon us as we are currently able of the above action, the fate of mankind is dependent upon the answer.

This essay cleverly relates the behavior of animals to human behavior; Konrad clearly describes both animals’ social inhibitions and our acts of submission. The naturalist also poses a philosophical question related to Shakespeare’s quote about war and its possible havoc at the end of the chapter, “Morals and Weapons” brings communion between animal and human behaviors, and we will need to be apprehensive about the topic. The ending of the chapter closes the entire book by relating back to humankind, and this is the most meaningful chapter included in the book.